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Communal violence is a form of violence that is perpetrated across ethnic or communal lines, the violent parties feel solidarity for their respective groups, and victims are chosen based upon group membership.〔Horowitz, D.L. (2000) ''The Deadly Ethnic Riot''. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA〕 The term includes conflicts, riots and other forms of violence between communities of different religious faith or ethnic origins.〔(Communal ) Oxford Dictionaries〕 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime includes any conflict and form of violence between communities of different religious group, different sects or tribes of same religious group, clans, ethnic origins or national origin as communal violence.〔(Homicide, Violence and Conflict ) UNODC, United Nations〕 However, this excludes conflict between two individuals or two families. Communal violence is found in Africa,〔Kynoch, G. (2013). Reassessing transition violence: Voices from South Africa's township wars, 1990–4. African Affairs, 112(447), 283-303〕〔John F. McCauley, Economic Development Strategies and Communal Violence in Africa, Comparative Political Studies February 2013 vol. 46 no. 2 182-211〕 Americas,〔Willis, G. D. (2014), Antagonistic authorities and the civil police in Sao Paulo Brazil, Latin American Research Review, 49(1), 3-22〕〔(Resource guide for municipalities ) UNODC〕 Asia,〔Mancini, L. (2005) Horizontal Inequality and Communal Violence: Evidence from Indonesian Districts (CRISE Working Paper No. 22, Oxford, Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford)〕〔Werbner, P. (2010), Religious identity, The Sage handbook of identities, ISBN 978-1412934114, Chapter 12〕 Europe〔Todorova, T. (2013), ‘Giving Memory a Future’: Confronting the Legacy of Mass Rape in Post-conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina, Journal of International Women's Studies, 12(2), 3-15〕 and Australia.〔Bell, P., & Congram, M. (2013), Communication Interception Technology (CIT) and Its Use in the Fight against Transnational Organised Crime (TOC) in Australia: A Review of the Literature, International Journal of Social Science Research, 2(1), 46-66〕 The term was constructed by the British colonial authorities as it wrestled to manage violence between religious, ethnic and disparate groups in its colonies, particularly Africa and South Asia, in early 20th century.〔〔Arafaat A. Valiani, Militant Publics in India: Physical Culture and Violence in the Making of a Modern Polity, ISBN 978-0230112575, Palgrave Macmillan, pp 29-32〕〔David Killingray, ''Colonial Warfare in West Africa'', in Imperialism and War: Essays on Colonial Wars in Asia and Africa (Edited by Jaap A. de Moor, H. L. Wesseling), ISBN 978-9004088344, Brill Academic〕 Communal violence, in different parts of the world, is alternatively referred to as ethnic violence, non-State conflict, violent civil unrest, minorities unrest, mass racial violence, inter-communal violence and ethno-religious violence.〔Donald Horowitz (1985), Ethnic Groups in Conflict, ISBN 978-0520053854〕 ==History== ;Europe Human history has experienced numerous episodes of communal violence.〔David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages, Princeton University Press, 1998〕 For example, in medieval Europe, Protestants clashed with Catholics, Christians clashed with Muslims while both perpetuated violence against Jews and Roma minorities. In 1561, Huguenots in Toulouse took out in a procession through the streets to express their solidarity for Protestant ideas. A few days later, the Catholics hunted down some of the leaders of the procession, beat them and burned them at the stake.〔Pierre-Jean Souriac, “Du corps à corps au combat fictif. Quand les catholiques toulousains affrontaient leurs homologues protestants,” in Les affrontements: Usages, discours et rituels, Editor: Frédérique Pitou and Jacqueline Sainclivier, Presses Universitaires de Rennes (2008)〕 In the French town of Pamiers, communal clashes were routine between Protestants and Catholics, such as during holy celebrations where the Catholics took out a procession with a statue of St. Anthony, sang and danced while they carried the statue around town. Local Protestants would year after year disrupt the festivities by throwing stones at the Catholics. In 1566, when the Catholic procession reached a Protestant neighborhood, the Protestants chanted “kill, kill, kill !!” and days of communal violence with numerous fatalities followed.〔Julius Ruff, Violence in Early Modern Europe 1500-1800, Cambridge University Press, 2001〕 In 1572, thousands of Protestants were killed by Catholics during communal violence in each of the following cities - Paris, Aix, Bordeaux, Bourges, Lyon, Meaux, Orleans, Rouen, Toulouse, and Troyes.〔〔 In Switzerland, communal violence between the Reformation movement and Catholics marked the 16th century.〔Bruce Gordon (2002), The Swiss Reformation, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719051180, pp. 90-99〕 ;Africa The Horn of Africa as well as West African regions have similar history of communal violence. Nigeria has seen centuries of communal violence between different ethnic groups particularly between Christian south and Islamic north.〔Samuel P. Huntington, (The Clash of Civilizations? ), Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Summer, 1993), pp. 22-49〕〔Desplat & Ostebo (2013), Muslim Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism, ISBN 978-1137325297〕 In 1964, after receiving independence from the British colonial rule, there were widespread communal violence in the ethnically diverse state of Zanzibar. The violent groups were Arabs and Africans, that expanded along religious lines, and the communal violence ultimately led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar.〔.〕 Local radio announced the death of tens of thousands of "stooges", but later estimates for deaths from Zanzibar communal violence have varied from hundreds to 2,000-4,000 to as many as 20,000. In late 1960s and early 1970s, there were widespread communal violence against Kenyans and Asians in Uganda with waves of theft, physical and sexual violence, followed by expulsions by Idi Amin.〔Kasozi, Abdu Basajabaka Kawalya; Musisi, Nakanyike; Sejjengo, James Mukooza (1994). The Social Origins of Violence in Uganda, 1964-1985, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, ISBN 0-7735-1218-7〕〔Phares Mukasa Mutibwa (1992), Uganda since independence: a story of unfulfilled hopes, C. Hurst & Co. United Kingdom, ISBN 1-85065-066-7〕 Idi Amin mentioned his religion as justification for his actions and the violence.〔Arnold M. Ludwig, ''King of the Mountain: The Nature of Political Leadership'', University of Kentucky Press, ISBN 978-0813122335, pp 182-187〕 Coptic Christians have suffered communal violence in Egypt for decades,〔Heba Saleh, (Christians targeted in communal violence in Egypt ) The Financial Times (August 16 2013)〕 with frequency and magnitude increasing since 1920s.〔B. L. Carter, The Copts in Egyptian Politics, ISBN 978-0415811248, Routledge, pp 272-279〕 ;Asia East, South and Southeast Asia have recorded numerous instances of communal violence. For example, Singapore suffered a wave of communal violence in 20th century between Malays and Chinese.〔Leifer, Michael (1964), (Communal violence in Singapore ), Asian Survey, Vol. 4, No. 10 (Oct., 1964), 1115-1121〕 In Indian subcontinent, numerous 18th through 20th century records of the British colonial era mention communal violence between Hindus and Muslims, as well as Sunni and Shia sects of Islam, particularly during processions related to respective religious celebrations.〔Bayly, C. A. (1985), The Pre-history of Communalism? Religious Conflict in India 1700–1860, Modern Asian Studies, 19 (02), pp. 177-203〕〔Baber, Z. (2004), Race, Religion and Riots: The ‘Racialization’ of Communal Identity and Conflict in India, Sociology, 38(4), pp. 701-718〕 The frequency of communal violence in South Asia increased after the first partition of Bengal in 1905, where segregation, unequal political and economic rights were imposed on Hindus and Muslims by Lord Curzon, based on religion. The colonial rule was viewed by each side as favoring the other side, resulting in a wave of communal riots and 1911 reversal of Bengal partition and its re-unification.〔Richard P. Cronin (1977), British Policy and Administration in Bengal, 1905-1912: Partition and the New Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, ISBN 978-0836400007〕 In 1919, after British General Dyer ordered his soldiers to fire on unarmed protestors inside a compound in Amritsar, killing 380 civilians, communal violence followed in India against British settlements.〔DRAPER, A. (1981), Amritsar - The Massacre that Ended the Raj, Littlehampton, ISBN 978-0304304813〕 There were hundreds of incidents of communal violence between 1905 to 1947, many related to religious, political sovereignty questions including partition of India along religious lines into East Pakistan, West Pakistan and India.〔PANDEY, G. (1983),␣in Editor: GUHA, R., 1983, Subaltern Studies II: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, Oxford University Press, pp. 60-129, ISBN 978-0195633658〕 The 1946 to 1947 period saw one of worst communal violence of 20th century, where waves of riots and violence killed between 100,000 to a million people, from Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Jain religions, particularly in cities and towns near the modern borders of India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh. Examples of these communal violence include the so-called Direct Action Day, Noakhali riots and the Partition riots in Rawalpindi.〔BRISTOW, R.C.B. (1974), Memories of the British Raj: A Soldier in India, Johnson, ISBN 978-0853071327〕〔PANDEY G. (1990), The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198077305〕 The 20th century witnessed inter-religious, intra-religious and ethnic communal violence in the Middle East, South Russia, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia.〔Tambiah, S. J. (1990), Presidential address: reflections on communal violence in South Asia, The Journal of Asian Studies, 49(04), pp 741-760; *Vaughn, B. (2005, February), Islam in South and Southeast Asia. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON DC, CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE (2005); *Baker & Hamilton (2006), The Iraq study group report, Random House, ISBN 978-0307386564; *Azra A. (2006), Indonesia, Islam, and democracy: Dynamics in a global context, Equinox Publishing, ISBN 978-9799988812, pp. 72-85〕〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Communal violence」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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